Status of women athletes’ rights in europe

List of acronyms

V.E.R.A. – Voice for Equality and Rights of women Athletes
International & European institutions:
CoE – Council of Europe EU – European Union
ILO – International Labour Organisation

Sports federations and institutions:
FIBA – International Basketball Federation
FIFA – Fédération Internationale de Football Association FIVB – Fédération Internationale de Volleyball
IHF – International Handball Federation IFs – International Sports Federations IOC – International Olympic Committee ITF – International Tennis Federation UCI – Union Cycliste Internationale WAq – World Aquatics
WAt – World Athletics WR – World Rugby

Other:
CBA – Collective Bargaining Agreement

Introduction

The contents of this training platform are the results of research conducted in the first part of the V.E.R.A. project. The situation of women in sports, particularly elite sportswomen, reflects the inequalities between men and women in our society. Indeed, giving a place to women in sport was not effortless, and this achievement is the result of a long-lasting fight for gender equality. It was only since the Paris 1900 Olympic Games edition that women were allowed to compete. Since then, the participation of women in sports competitions has never stopped growing. For instance, while only 2 % of athletes were women in 1900, 48 % of athletes at the Tokyo 2020 (2021) Olympic Games were women[1]. The Paris 2024 Olympic Games should be the first to truly respect a perfect parity between men and women athletes[2].

However, a substantial gap exists between women’s and men’s athletes’ training conditions and opportunities. It can take different forms and concern various aspects of athletes’ performance, including exposure, social protection, and monetary compensation. The European Union (EU) Strategy for Gender Equality[3], adopted in 2021, underlines that women are facing a significant number of obstacles in the field of sport. The Council of Europe (CoE) also identified a pay gap in sports regarding athletes’ contractual earnings, sponsorship, endorsements, and prize money[4].

From the specific cases of competitions planning lower prize money for female athletes to a general imbalance between sportsmen and sportswomen, the situation does not allow for a steady development of women’s sports practice and continues to feed gender biases. As a result, women athletes are less likely than men to pursue a career in sports because they often must make greater sacrifices for a lower outcome.

Thus, the V.E.R.A. project aims to address the issue of women athletes’ rights, with a particular interest in the rights of elite athletes.

In this analysis, we acknowledge that different elements define an athlete: it can refer to amateur athletes in grassroots associations as well as players in professional teams. However, to ensure a relevant scope, the analysis will mainly focus on elite athletes, including but not limited to professional athletes. It is essential to clearly define these notions because they relate to different realities depending on each Member State of the European Union.

The definition of a professional athlete is not homogeneous at the International and European levels, as different criteria apply in each national sport system. According to the International Labour Organization (ILO) Issues paper for discussion at the Global Dialogue Forum on Decent Work in the World of Sport[5], a professional athlete is defined as “an athlete who gains income through competitive sport and whose activities are controlled by a sports organization, such as a club or federation”, including specifically athletes “whose only professional activity is sport, either as employees or as contract players of sports clubs” and “athletes who may have other jobs but who spend significant time training and competing in sports competitions from which they derive income, such as athletes in some Olympic disciplines”.

This definition of a professional athlete can be seen as a broad definition as, for example, under French law, a professional athlete is “any person whose remunerated activity is the exercise of a sporting activity in a legally subordinate relationship with a sports association or company”[6]. Under Italian law, a professional athlete is a person “who exercises sports activities in favour of a sport club for consideration with continuity, within the disciplines regulated by the Italian National Olympic Committee that have recognised professionalism”[7]. In Italy, only four disciplines are recognised as professionals: football, cycling, golf, and basketball. As the definition of a “professional athlete” is based on each specific national situation, the scope of this analysis does not depend on the professional status that athletes may or may not have under the relevant national law.

Indeed, following several cases of problems relating to the social protection of elite athletes, new questions are being raised about the conditions under which elite sportswomen practice their sport. As these athletes devote much time to their sport, which might put them at risk, the interrogation arises as to whether they are entitled to social protection. In the ILO World Social Protection Report 2017-19[8], social protection is “a human right and is defined as the set of policies and programmes designed to reduce and prevent poverty, vulnerability and social exclusion throughout the life cycle”. It includes nine main areas, such as child and family benefits, maternity protection, employment injury benefits, and old-age benefits, also included in the European Code of Social Security[9] established by the CoE in 1964 and revised in 1990. These elements derive from the ILO Social Security (Minimum Standards) Convention No. 102[10], adopted in 1952. Under this convention, social protection refers to the various programs that might protect workers. They include different benefits established to prevent any risk that might prevent workers from exercising their occupation and earning remuneration (such as sickness or injury).

However, social protection generally applies to workers, whereas elite athletes may not have worker status. Moreover, their sports practice can be independent, so they do not necessarily benefit from social protection rights. Therefore, this analysis aims to determine the extent to which elite sportswomen have any support to help them in their performance or any protection concerning the risks they face while practising their sport.

This analysis addresses the status of elite women athletes in Europe to raise awareness about their rights. All the areas previously mentioned regarding social protection might not apply to the specific situation of athletes. Thus, the focus will be on four key issues that appear to be the most impactful and essential regarding the sport performance of women athletes:

Financial support and social welfare rights; Maternity rights; Technical and medical support; Access to facilities.

First, reviewing the legal and regulatory framework of sport practice will help determine to which extent this framework establishes specific measures for women athletes’ performance. The leading international organisations, such as the ILO, the CoE and the EU, have established a general framework for protecting workers’ and women’s rights that may apply to women athletes in Europe. International Sports Federations (IFs) regulatory documents complete this legal framework.

The project partners agreed that this study would focus on a limited number of sports: basketball, football (and futsal), volleyball, handball, rugby, tennis, cycling, swimming and athletics. These sports have been chosen with a balance between individual and team sports, which are sufficiently developed and structured in European countries. However, national disparities and specificities remain within the European Union.

Secondly, a survey campaign was carried out targeting elite athletes and sports institutions in Italy, Portugal, France, Slovenia and Spain. These questionnaires draw a picture of the concrete situation of women elite athletes in different European countries, as these inputs complement the legal overview studied in the first place.

All these elements will provide an overview of the situation of elite women athletes in Europe, considering the variations that come from the heterogeneity of the Member States.

The legal and regulatory landscape of women athletes’ rights in europe

As elite athletes, sportswomen face many challenges to produce high-level sport performance. Nevertheless, among European countries and due to the great diversity of sport disciplines, women athletes receive distinct support and protection.

Some leading institutions produce international and European acts. However, to understand how these provisions may apply to sportswomen, it is crucial to comprehend their scope and authority over national sports systems. Indeed, these provisions are related to their status, which may differ depending on the discipline and the country in which they practice their sport.

Additionally, international sports federations tend to interfere with national sport systems, thanks to their internal regulation that sometimes help the protection of sportswomen. These regulations only apply to the considered discipline. Nonetheless, they help indicate the level of protection and consideration for elite women athletes. Moreover, it is crucial to understand their scope and authority on national or local stakeholders for each discipline.

Analysing and comparing the scope and content of the legal and regulatory framework applicable to elite sportswomen in Europe provides a better understanding of the support and protection they are entitled to as high-level athletes.

Two key issues stand out Among the topics this study aims to address: financial support and maternity rights. They create the most interventions from international and European institutions or IFs. To complete this analysis, secondary topics related to gender equality and women in sports, considered by sports and leading institutions, will also be presented. Indeed, this can help draw a broad picture of elite sportswomen’s protection in Europe.

The general framework for the protection of sportswomen by the leading institutions

In this analysis, we have identified the central bodies at the international and European levels that could recognise specific rights for athletes or women. Thus, the provisions of three institutions were analysed. At the international level, the reference institution is the ILO. At the European level, the CoE and the EU are the two central bodies that may recognise specific rights for women and athletes.

The International Labour Organization (ILO) is a tripartite United Nations agency that gathers “governments, employers and workers of 187 Members States”.

This organisation aims “to promote rights at work, encourage decent employment opportunities, enhance social protection, and strengthen dialogue on work-related issues”[11].
The ILO is well known internationally for its conventions and recommendations used as tools for setting international Labour standards. The ILO can also adopt declarations which are not subject to ratification[12] but still have political and symbolic values.

Until now, the ILO has not yet invested significantly in sport, as the structuration and professionalisation of the sector are ongoing. However, the ILO’s interest in developing its expertise in this sector is growing. This interest can be illustrated through a cooperation agreement signed with the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and various supporting programmes about sport. For instance, the ILO was part of the Mega Sporting Events Platform for Human Rights, which established the Centre for Sport and Human Rights[13] in 2018.

Therefore, the ILO did not adopt any specific convention or recommendation regarding athletes’ rights. However, the ILO produced in 2020 an Issue paper on Decent Work in the World of Sport in 2020[14]. In this paper, the ILO acknowledges some issues related to work conditions and athletes’ rights in the world of sport.

Regarding women workers’ rights, the ILO has adopted specific conventions such as Convention No. 183 on Maternity Protection[15], Convention No. 100 on Equal Remuneration[16], or Convention No. 156 on Workers with Family Responsibilities[17].

The Council of Europe (CoE) is a regional organisation founded in 1949 after World War II. The Council of Europe is gathering 46 Member States. This organisation aims to ensure the political reconstruction of Europe after the War and prevent other conflicts. Thus, the reconstruction of Europe within the CoE implies setting common and fundamental European values. The CoE is described as the “guardian of Human Rights”[18]. For instance, the CoE established the European Court of Human Rights through the European Convention on Human Rights.

To achieve its objective, the CoE can initiate various acts, including conventions and recommendations.

The CoE has played an early role in the European sport sector. Already in 1976, the European Sport for All Charter was adopted. Then, in 2007, as a way to deepen its sports policy, the Enlarged Partial Agreement on Sport was established. Its purpose is “to promote sport and to highlight the positive values it conveys”. This agreement was also appointed to set “international standards and develop a pan-European framework for co-operation”[19].

The CoE also adopted three conventions related to sport: the Anti-Doping Convention[20], the Convention on the Manipulation of Sports Competitions[21], and the Safety, Security, and Service: the Saint-Denis Convention[22]. However, those conventions do not directly tackle the four key issues related to athletes’ rights. Nevertheless, the CoE provides specific provisions related to women’s condition in some conventions and recommendations[23].

Last, the CoE is part of the project ‘ALL IN: Towards gender balance in sport’, which intends to “extend and standardise the data collection based on the set of commonly agreed “basic” gender equality indicators and develop concrete capacity-building and awareness-raising materials and activities”[24].

Since the beginning, the European Union (EU) was established based on economic cooperation between the Member States: European Coal and Steel Community (1951), European Economic Community, and Euratom (1957). Then, the European Union was genuinely established in 1992[25]. Currently, 27 countries are part of the EU, and their economic cooperation has deepened over the years.

Consequently, the European Union sets many rules (fundamental economic rights and competition law provisions) to guarantee a fair and sound market for all the operators. Throughout the years, the EU has obtained more attributes and competencies. The EU institutions can adopt legislative acts, such as directives, regulations, recommendations, or decisions. All these acts do not require the ratification of the Member States[26].

The EU saw sport primarily as an economic activity (as shown in the Walrave & Koch [12.12.1974 – Case 36/74][27] and Bosman decisions [15.12.1995 – Case C-415/93][28]) and did not intend to play a significant role in the European sport sector, apart from the economic issues. Since the Treaty of Rome in 2009, the EU acquired a specific competence in sport. The EU now has three main priorities in this field: “protect the integrity and values of sports, encourage socio-economic and environmental dimensions of sports, and promote participation in sports and health-enhancing activities”[29].

Within the EU’s priorities, protecting integrity and values in sports includes athletes’ rights. Currently, there is no directive or regulation on the rights of athletes or an apparent sports policy in the EU. Nevertheless, related to sports, the EU produced some specific documents, such as the White Paper on Sport[30] and the EU Work Plan for Sport (2021-2024)[31]. It also encourages initiatives in the European sport sector, including the V.E.R.A. project.

Furthermore, apart from the sports field, specific directives have been established regarding women’s rights and conditions in the EU frameworks, such as the Employment Equality Directive (2000/78/EC)[32], the Pregnancy Directive (92/85/EEC)[33] or the Work-life Balance Directive (2019/1158/EU)[34]. These conventions apply to any worker in the EU, inside or outside the field of sport.

The scope and binding effect of these institutions’ acts

These organisations may adopt different acts that need to be differentiated based on their scope and binding force. They may diverge as they depend on the ratification of these acts. Ratification is “the final step in approving an agreement by which the parties indicate their intention to be bound by that agreement. Once ratification has occurred, an agreement can be concluded and formally enters into force”[35]. With formal ratification, a Member State engages its responsibility. Contrarily, without this ratification, a Member State is not committed to implementing it, even if the convention is signed. Indeed, the ILO, the CoE or the EU provisions will only apply if the Parties ratify the relative convention or treaty.

When a Member State ratifies a convention, it commits itself to implement its provisions in its legal order. Moreover, once a Member State has ratified the Council of Europe conventions, the European Court of Human Rights oversees its implementation.

A treaty is legally binding between EU Members States. EU treaties set out: the rules and objectives of EU institutions and relations between the EU and the Members States. Every attribute or competences of the EU comes from the treaties.

Each Member State must implement a regulation across the EU without any adaptation to the national legal order. A directive binds every Member State to the intended outcome while granting national authorities the competence to determine the specific form and means of implementation.

A recommendation issues some guidelines and encourages the States to put that into practice.

Focus: the international olympic committee

In addition to analysing the leading institutions that may intervene for elite athletes’ protection, it seems worthwhile to also look at the actions of the International Olympic Committee (IOC). With IFs, the IOC plays a significant role and sets essential principles in the world of sports.
In addition to analysing the leading institutions that may intervene for elite athletes’ protection, it seems worthwhile to also look at the actions of the International Olympic Committee (IOC). With IFs, the IOC plays a significant role and sets essential principles in the world of sports.

The IOC was founded in 1894 as the “leader of the Olympic movement and the guardian of the Olympic Games”[36]. For instance, the Olympic Charter[37] provides that among its missions, the IOC aims at ensuring the representativeness of athletes, supporting measures related to the medical care and health of athletes, fighting for any political or commercial abuse of athletes, and encouraging the stakeholders (sports organisations and public authorities) to provide a social and professional future for athletes. Those principles apply to the entire Olympic Movement and highlight that “the athletes are at the heart of the Olympic Movement”[38].

The IOC brings together 206 National Olympic Committees, which comprise national sports Olympic federations. Moreover, it also acknowledges several International Sports Federations (IFs), such as the International Basketball Federation (FIBA), Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), Fédération Internationale de Volleyball (FIVB), International Handball Federation (IHF), World Rugby (WR), International Tennis Federation (ITF), Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI), World Aquatics (WAq), and World Athletics (WAt).

Consequently, associations of federations were created: the Association of Summer Olympic International Federations, the Association of International Olympic Winter Sports Federations, and the Association of IOC Recognised International Sports Federations. Under those associations, it is around 80 IFs recognised by the IOC. The IOC also recognised other organisations related to the world of sports[39].

Being part of the Olympic Movement implies following the rules set by the IOC. Within the fundamental principles of Olympism presented in the Olympic Charter, are the principles of non- discrimination, universality of sport, and preservation of human rights. The recognised IFs must comply with the Olympic Charter, the World Anti-Doping Code[40] and the Olympic Movement Code on the prevention of the manipulation of competitions[41].

Sports organisations must also follow the IOC Code of Ethics[42], which the IOC Ethics Commission oversees. If any breaches of the Code of Ethics occur, the commission can recommend punishments to the IOC executive board, such as suspension, withdrawal of recognition, or a reprimand. Those texts apply to National Olympic Committees, IFs, and recognised organisations.

As part of the Olympic Charter and the IOC Code of Ethics, sports organisations must comply with the Basic Universal Principles of Good Governance within the Olympic Movement[43]. In other words, regarding athletes’ rights, they should provide “direct or indirect financial and technical support for athletes”, protect athletes “from doping, manipulation of competitions, corruption in sport, all forms of discrimination and violence in sport, and all forms of harassment and abuse in sport”[44]. More specifically, among the topics concerned by this analysis, international sports organisations should also ensure “the promotion of women in sports at all levels and in all structures”. One principle is reserved explicitly for supporting athletes: “appropriate measures should be taken to adopt and implement the Athletes’ Rights and Responsibilities Declaration”.

Indeed, in 2018, the 133rd IOC Session, on behalf of the Olympic Movement, adopted the Athletes’ Rights and Responsibilities Declaration[45]. It has been “developed by athletes and for athletes through a worldwide consultation process”, and it presents 12 rights and 10 responsibilities for athletes[46]. For example, according to the four themes picked under this analysis, the declaration promotes the right for athletes to: “leverage opportunities to generate income in relation to their sporting career, name and likeness, while recognising the intellectual property or other rights, rules of the event and of sports organisations as well as the Olympic Charter” and “the protection of mental and physical health, including a safe competition and training environment and protection from abuse and harassment”.

This declaration sets “aspirational” rights and responsibilities, which aim to be a reference within sports organisations to guide the Olympic Movement’s action. Within this principle, five more provisions sports organisations “should or shall” do to support athletes.

The IOC has the ambition to go “beyond the games”. Therefore, different commissions or programs have been implemented to support athletes better. For instance, in 1971, the Olympic Solidarity Commission was established. It aims to “provide assistance to all the National Olympic Committees for athlete development programmes”[47]. There is also the Athlete 365 career+[48], an initiative to help athletes transition after their sports career: Athletes can have networking & mentoring opportunities, employment support, skills building, career planning and guidance. As the notion of dual careers is increasingly considered, such initiatives are needed in sports.

Other topics regarding women in sport are also mentioned at the institutional governance level. The Basic Universal Principles of Good Governance within the Olympic Movement states that “the organisation shall set out clear, open, appropriate, and objectives eligibility criteria […], in its governing bodies, including in particular: – A balanced representation of genders among the members (with a minimum of 30% of each gender) – Athletes’ representation with active participation in the decision-making processes – A special focus on diversity and inclusion”[49].

Nevertheless, as with international and European bodies, all those provisions are more likely to be guidelines rather than obligations for sports organisations. However, the key distinction lies in the fact that the provisions of the IOC are specifically intended for athletes.

At the international level and even more in the world of sports, the disparities from one country to another may be very variable. Consequently, it is more complicated to get truly harmonised regulations. Still, international regulations can intervene on these topics and highlight measures that would favour the professionalisation of the athletes.
Moreover, it also highlights that private entities (mostly non-governmental and not-for-profit Swiss associations), like the IOC or the IFs, can also address athlete’s rights concerns. However, their provisions would hold contractual rather than legislative weight compared to the leading institution. Therefore, for instance, only the Olympic Movement members would be subject to the IOC’s provisions.

The regulatory framework of international sports federations for the protection of sportswomen

In conjunction with the documents issued by these international and European authorities, we also have decided to analyse the regulations of sports institutions in order to illustrate the status of women athletes’ rights in Europe. Furthermore, as IFs are the leading sports institutions responsible for the organisation of elite competitions at the international level, the study of their regulations will contribute to assessing the measures that sports institutions have implemented for the defence and development of women’s rights at the elite level.

IFs, as the highest institutions in each discipline, can issue regulations and statutes or acts. As this study focuses on a limited number of sports, the review of the regulatory texts only includes the framework of the IFs for each discipline of the study: FIBA, FIFA, FIVB, IHF, WR, ITF, UCI, WAq and WAt.

It is also important to register that international law and national social provisions precede the IFs’ measures. IFs must also comply with national texts, including social commitments (for some sports, Collective Bargaining Agreements (CBA) apply priorly to international regulation measures).

The texts of these institutions are binding for their members: the national federations. The regulations primarily concentrate on organising international competitions and the day-to-day operations of international and national sports federations. For instance, even if the regulatory text does not specifically mention them, local sports clubs that are part of national federations are still required to follow the regulations. However, most of the time, the regulatory texts of IFs do not directly aim at organising the performance of elite athletes internationally, and federations rarely enforce specific measures for high-level leagues or clubs. Federations tend to interfere directly with clubs’ organisations only if their regulations present some provisions related to drafting contracts between athletes and clubs. These provisions mainly concern the transfers between clubs, especially at the international level, and sometimes mention other subjects such as the players’ salaries.

For instance, the FIVB, FIFA, IHF and WR regulatory texts mention specific measures regarding players of elite professional leagues. These measures are enforceable only if a contract exists and create a legal bond between the club and the players.

In most cases, an employment contract constitutes this bond. A certification process is necessary in case of international transfer of a player. Some national federations or leagues also have their proper certification process for establishing any contract between a club and a player in their country. The existence of such a contract and the organisation of these certification processes makes it possible to impose some mandatory provisions regarding the sports practice conditions of the athletes. Outside of these circumstances, IFs do not establish requirements regarding the sport practice conditions of elite athletes.

The UCI has a peculiar situation: It is the only IF that lays down strict rules for the teams participating in international competitions, imposing sporting conditions that professional teams must offer to elite athletes (both men and women). These provisions tackle athletes’ employment contracts and go beyond the issues of international transfers or salaries. Indeed, the UCI oversees the Women’s WorldTour organisation and imposes specific rules regarding the structuration of the participating teams. It comes from the specific structuration of international cycling: The teams participating in the UCI Women’s World Tour must apply for a licence directly delivered by the UCI, making it possible to impose certain functioning conditions for these teams.

There is no such process for licensing international teams in other sports, even individual sports. For instance, there are no teams for tennis and swimming as there are in cycling: Athletes are licensed in their clubs and individually involved in international tournaments. IFs can try to regulate the organisation of these tournaments without the ability to impose any measures, contrary to the UCI system. In other disciplines than cycling, IFs have a more distant bond to elite clubs or sports bodies.

Therefore, the implementation of specific measures to protect the training conditions of the athletes depends on the following:

The IF’s intervention in the organisation of international competitions (e.g., the ITF manages the ranking of the WTA tournaments and has implemented a regulation that maintains the ranking of pregnant athletes while they put on hold their careers)[50];

The existence of a direct relationship between the IFs and the elite-level sports actors (e.g., the UCI can establish specific requirements for the Women’s WorldTour as the IF selects the participating teams);

The existence of a codified document that materialises the relationship between the athletes and their clubs (e.g., FIFA establishes requirements that must appear in any employment contract between a player and their team).

Mentions of key topics in international sports federations texts

Regarding the different rights mentioned in IFs texts, maternity and financial protection are more likely to be protected when athletes contract with national or local sports entities. The financing, the development of social welfare rights and the defence of maternity rights often appear as the most important.
These contracts can be employment contracts or bilateral agreements between the athletes and specific sport entities (federations, governmental sport agencies, and clubs). A bilateral agreement helps the athletes with the costs of their sport practice without any authority from the sports entities on the athletes.

Without any codified document that materializes and frames the relationship between the athlete and the sports institution, there is no possibility to impose a maternity leave or a minimal salary for the athletes, as they fall under the status of amateur athletes.

Many federations’ regulatory texts include provisions regarding the drafting of employment contracts of athletes (men and women), mainly about the transfer procedures and the salary. For instance, FIFA established some Regulations on the Status and Transfer of Players[51] that tackle issues such as registration and the contractual stability between professional players and their clubs. These regulations also include specific provisions for women players related to maternity rights. The FIBA also adopted some rules on players and officials (Book 3 of the Internal Regulations[52]) that help regulate the international transfers of players, as well as the IHF, which established a Player Eligibility Code that regulates the status and the registration of professional handball players at the international level[53].

Other subjects, among those we identified as essential for the performance of sportswomen, rarely appear in IFs regulations. Indeed, it is the case of technical and medical support or access to facilities that are also crucial for developing high-level sports practice. However, as they largely depend on the local situation and rely on volunteer commitments from national sports actors, it is rare for international federations to intervene in these topics.

The only federation that intervenes on these topics is the UCI: According to the UCI cycling regulations, “each UCI Women’s WorldTeam must employ — on a full-time basis and for the whole registration year — at least two sport directors and five other staff members, who must all be paid for their activity (coaches, doctors, paramedical assistants, mechanics or others)”[54]. These provisions ensure a complete and qualified team around elite athletes, but it is the only federation with such measures.

All IFs must respect the exact scope of application for their regulatory framework. These texts apply to national federations and their affiliated members for specific disciplines. However, these regulations rarely tackle the sporting conditions of elite women athletes, and a specific structure is necessary to enable the intervention of IFs on the issue of sport practice conditions.

Apart from the exceptional functioning of the UCI, the only mentions related to this issue are applicable when an employment contract exists between the athlete and its structure. It is sometimes the case for sports such as football, basketball, volleyball, handball, rugby or cycling (even though the situation can be pretty variable depending on the country), but rarely exist for other disciplines, such as swimming, athletics or tennis. In these situations, the focus is primarily on addressing the matters of financial support, maternity rights, and certain social welfare rights.

List of references

[1] International Olympic Committee. (2021). Gender Equality and Inclusion Objectives 2021-2024. https://stillmed.olympics.com/media/Documents/Beyond-the-Games/Gender-Equality-in-Sport/IOC-Gender-Equality-and-Inclusion-Objectives-2021-2024.pdf (read more)
[2] Paris 2024. (2020). Paris 2024 will be the first 100% Gender Equal Games in history. https://press.paris2024.org/news/paris-2024-will-be-the-first-100-gender-equal-games-in-history-5967-7578a.html

[3] European Parliament Resolution. On the EU Strategy for Gender Equality. 21 January, 2021. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/TA-9-2021-0025_EN.html

[4] Council of Europe. (2016). Factsheet on gender equality and participation in sport. https://rm.coe.int/bis-factsheet-gender-equality-sport-participation-en/1680714b90

[5] International Labour Organization. (2020). Decent work in the world of sport, Issues paper for discussion at the Global Dialogue Forum on Decent Work in the World of Sport.
https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/—ed_dialogue/— sector/documents/meetingdocument/wcms_728119.pdf

[6] Convention Collective Nationale du Sport du 7 juillet 2005 étendue par arrêté du 21 novembre 2006. https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/conv_coll/id/KALISCTA000017577867/

[7] Legge 23 marzo 1981, n. 91 Norme in materia di rapporti tra società e sportivi professionist. https://scuoladellosport.coni.it/images/documenti/Normativa_Sport/Professionismo/Legge_23_marzo_1981_n.91.pdf

[8] International Labour Organization. (2017). World Social Protection Report 2017-19: Universal social protection to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals.
https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/—dgreports/—dcomm/— publ/documents/publication/wcms_604882.pdf

[9] European Code of Social Security (Revised), 6 November 1990. CETS 139. https://rm.coe.int/CoERMPublicCommonSearchServices/DisplayDCTMContent?
documentId=090000168007b3d6

[10] International Labour Organization Convention on Social Security (Minimum Standards), 28 June, 1952, https://www.ilo.org/secsoc/areas-of-work/legal-advice/WCMS_205340/lang–en/index.htm

[11] International Labour Organisation. (n.d.). About the ILO. https://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/lang–en/index.htm

[12] International Labour Organisation (2015, November 23). ILO Declarations. http://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/how-the-ilo-works/organigramme/jur/legal-
instruments/WCMS_428589/lang–en/index.htm

[13] Institute for Human Rights and Business. (n. d.). About the MSE Plaftorm. https://www.ihrb.org/megasportingevents/mse-about

[14] International Labour Organization. (2020). Decent work in the world of sport, Issues paper for discussion at the Global Dialogue Forum on Decent Work in the World of Sport.
https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/—ed_dialogue/— sector/documents/meetingdocument/wcms_728119.pdf

[15] International Labour Organization Convention on Maternity Protection, 15 June, 2000, https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB%3A12100%3A0%3A%3ANO%3A%3AP12100_ILO_CODE%3AC183

[16] International Labour Organization Convention on Equal Remuneration, 29 June, 1951, https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB%3A12100%3A0%3A%3ANO%3A12100%3AP12100_INSTRUMENT_ID%3A312245%3ANO

[17] International Labour Organization Convention Workers with Family Responsibilities, 23 June, 1981, https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:12100:0::NO::P12100_ILO_CODE:C156

[18] Council of Europe. (2023). The Council of Europe, guardian of human rights. https://edoc.coe.int/en/an-overview/6206-the-council-of-europe-guardian-of-human-rights.html

[19] Council of Europe. (2023). The Council of Europe – An overview. https://edoc.coe.int/en/an-overview/6966-the-council-of-europe-an-overview.html

[20] Council of Europe Convention on Anti-Doping, November 16, 1989, https://rm.coe.int/168007b0e0

[21] Council of Europe Convention on the Manipulation of Sports Competitions, September 18, 2014 https://rm.coe.int/CoERMPublicCommonSearchServices/DisplayDCTMContent?
documentId=09000016801cdd7e#:~:text=%E2%80%9CManipulation%20of%20sports%20competitions%E2%80%9D%20means%20an%20intentional%20arrangement%2C,an%20undue%20advantage%20for%20oneself%20or%20for% 20others

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[43] Idem.

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[56] European Social Charter (Revised), 3 May 1996. CETS 163. https://rm.coe.int/168007cf93

[57] Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, 26 October 2012. C 326/391. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:12012P/TXT

[58] Birnbaum, J., Craig, M., & Knight, B. (2023). The World’s Highest-Paid Athletes 2023. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/lists/athletes/

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[63] Falkingham, K., Oxley, S., & Thompson, A. (2021). Prize money: Cricket makes progress towards gender parity, biggest gap in football. BBC.
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[64] Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, 26 October 2012. C 326/391. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:12012P/TXT
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References in the International Sports Federations table (p. 26):

International Basketball Federation
International Basketball Federation. (2023). FIBA Internal Regulations – Book 1 General Provisions. https://www.fiba.basketball/internal-regulations/book1/general-provisions.pdf#page=35

International Basketball Federation. (2021). FIBA General Statutes. https://www.fiba.basketball/documents/fiba-general-statutes.pdf#page=15

International Basketball Federation. (2019). FIBA Strategic Priority 2: Women in Basketball. FIBA. https://www.fiba.basketball/fr/women-in-basketball

Fédération Internationale de Football Association
Fédération Internationale de Football Association. (2022). FIFA Statutes. https://digitalhub.fifa.com/m/3815fa68bd9f4ad8/original/FIFA_Statutes_2022-EN.pdf#page=13

Fédération Internationale de Football Association. (2020). Women’s Football: Minimum Labour Conditions for Players.
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Fédération Internationale de Football Association. (2018). Women’s Football Strategy. https://digitalhub.fifa.com/m/baafcb84f1b54a8/original/z7w21ghir8jb9tguvbcq-pdf.pdf

Fédération Internationale de Football Association. (2022). FIFA Statutes. https://digitalhub.fifa.com/m/3815fa68bd9f4ad8/original/FIFA_Statutes_2022-EN.pdf#page=13

Fédération Internationale de Volleyball
Fédération Internationale de Volleyball. (2022). Constitution.
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Fédération Internationale de Volleyball. (2022). Code of Ethics.
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Fédération Internationale de Volleyball. (2022). Code of Ethics.
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Fédération Internationale de Volleyball. (2022). Constitution.
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Ditchfield, H. (2021, March 8). Prize money in sport – BBC Sport study. BBC. https://www.bbc.com/sport/56266693

Fédération Internationale de Volleyball. (2022). General Regulations.
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International Handball Federation
International Handball Federation. (2022). I. Statutes. https://www.ihf.info/sites/default/files/2022-02/01%20-%20Statutes_E.pdf#page=1

Ditchfield, H. (2021, March 8). Prize money in sport – BBC Sport study. BBC. https://www.bbc.com/sport/56266693

World Rugby
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World Rugby. (2021). Accelerating the global development of women in rugby 2021-25. https://resources.world.rugby/worldrugby/document/2021/11/27/207301cf-071e-42cd-9d9c-ab23ee02e337/2021-Womens_Plan-EN-3.pdf

International Tennis Federation
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International Tennis Federation. (2022). 2022 Men’s and Women’s ITF World Tennis Tour Regulations. https://www.itftennis.com/media/8163/2022-itf-world-tennis-tour-regulations.pdf#page=77

International Tennis Federation. (2023). The Constitution of ITF Limited 2023. https://www.itftennis.com/media/2431/the-constitution-of-the-itf-2023-web-version.pdf#page7

Ditchfield, H. (2021, March 8). Prize money in sport – BBC Sport study. BBC. https://www.bbc.com/sport/56266693

International Tennis Federation. (2019). ITF Gender Equality Strategy (2019 – 2024). https://www.itftennis.com/media/7412/itf-advantage-all-strategy-final-june-2019.pdf

Union Cycliste Internationale
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Union Cycliste Internationale. (2023). Code of Ethics. https://assets.ctfassets.net/761l7gh5x5an/5ZszbcdPPoMq5cC82OxkTl/6650020f84ba2e5296a5a6f62c397f58/2023_UCI_ETHICS_EN.pdf

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Union Cycliste Internationale. (2023). UCI Cycling Regulations – Part 2 Road Races. https://assets.ctfassets.net/761l7gh5x5an/3zdJc5antr1dA3GYeDKdBu/bef82a9d7336e9b798c364066db92581/2-ROA-20230613-E.pdf

World Aquatics
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Ditchfield, H. (2021, March 8). Prize money in sport – BBC Sport study. BBC. https://www.bbc.com/sport/56266693

World Athletics
World Athletics. (2019). Integrity Code of Conduct. https://worldathletics.org/download/download?filename=ba923b86-b605-4e1f-9123-a4fa83793443.pdf&urlslug=D1.1%20-%20Integrity%20Code%20of%20Conduct

World Athletics. (2021). Constitution. https://worldathletics.org/download/download?filename=7f875f76-8eb2-48ae-a4e7-18b8bf6cefea.pdf&urlslug=A1%20-%20The%20Constitution

World Athletics. (2022). Indoor Tour Regulations. https://worldathletics.org/download/download?filename=289a2cbd-a7fc-4283-8730-9b9457a55873.pdf&urlslug=C1.5%20-%20Indoor%20Tour%20Regulations

[78] Fédération Internationale de Football Association. (2018). Women’s Football Strategy. https://digitalhub.fifa.com/m/baafcb84f1b54a8/original/z7w21ghir8jb9tguvbcq-pdf.pdf

[79] World Rugby. (2021). Accelerating the global development of women in rugby 2021-25. https://resources.world.rugby/worldrugby/document/2021/11/27/207301cf-071e-42cd-9d9c-ab23ee02e337/2021-Womens_Plan-EN-3.pdf

[80] International Tennis Federation. (2019). ITF Gender Equality Strategy (2019 – 2024). https://www.itftennis.com/media/7412/itf-advantage-all-strategy-final-june-2019.pdf

[81] Fédération Internationale de Football Association. (2018). Women’s Football Strategy. https://digitalhub.fifa.com/m/baafcb84f1b54a8/original/z7w21ghir8jb9tguvbcq-pdf.pdf

[82] Koukiadaki, A., & Pearson, G. (2017). 2017 FIFPRO GLOBAL EMPLOYMENT REPORT: Working Conditions in Professional Women’s Football. FIFPRO World Players’ Union.
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[83] Asociación de Jugadoras de Futbol Sala. (2022). Informe sobre la situación laboral de las jugadoras de fútbol sala de Primera División Nacional.
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[84] Convention Collective du Handball Professionnel Féminin de 2021.
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[85] Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, 26 October 2012. C 326/391. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:12012P/TXT

[86] Directive 92/85/EEC. On the introduction of measures to encourage improvements in the safety and health at work of pregnant workers and workers who have recently given birth or are breastfeeding. Council of the European Communities.
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A31992L0085#:~:text=Council%20Directive%2092%2F85%2FEEC%20of%2019%20October%201992%20on,meaning%20of%20Article%2016%20%281%29%20of%20Directive%2089%2F391%2FEEC%29

[87] Arribas, C. (2017, March 27). Why female athletes in Spain are banned from getting pregnant. El País. https://english.elpais.com/elpais/2017/03/27/inenglish/1490613973_221448.html

[88] Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, 26 October 2012. C 326/391. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:12012P/TXT

[89] Fédération Internationale de Football Association. (2020). Amendments to the Regulations on the Status and Transfer of Players and to the Rules Governing the Procedures of the Players’ Status Committee and the Dispute Resolution Chamber.
https://digitalhub.fifa.com/m/10abb49ec09c6744/original/pchzzmjnv5po1vaw8mar-pdf.pdf

[90] Kriger, R. (2023, January 17). Icelandic international Sara Björk Gunnarsdóttir wins maternity rights case against Lyon. The Equalizer.
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[91] Convention Collective du Handball Professionnel Féminin de 2021.
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[92] Ley 39/2022, de 30 de diciembre, del Deporte. https://www.csd.gob.es/es/csd/organizacion/legislacion-basica/ley-del-deporte